A Comparative Review of Green-Synthesized Species-Specific Pheromones and Conventional Chemical Insecticides for Managing Invasive Insect Populations

Abstract

Invasive insect species remain among the most persistent threats to agricultural productivity, food security, and ecosystem stability, and their suppression has long depended on synthetic chemical insecticides. Accumulating evidence of environmental toxicity, accelerating resistance, and harm to beneficial organisms has shifted attention toward selective and ecologically compatible alternatives. This review examines the comparative standing of green-synthesized species-specific pheromones and conventional chemical insecticides as instruments for managing invasive insect populations. Drawing on published work across invasion ecology, chemical ecology, and green chemistry, the discussion considers the mechanisms, field performance, and ecological footprint of each approach. Attention is given to the behavioural basis of pheromone-mediated control, the rise of plant-assisted and microbial synthesis routes, and the consequences of each strategy for biodiversity and long-term sustainability. The synthesized evidence indicates that although chemical insecticides frequently deliver rapid and pronounced suppression, green-synthesized pheromones achieve broadly comparable management while inflicting markedly lower collateral damage on non-target communities. The review also weighs the economic, regulatory, and technical factors that govern adoption and identifies the principal gaps that currently constrain wider deployment. On balance, green-synthesized pheromones emerge as credible, species-specific components of integrated pest management and align closely with the broader transition toward environmentally responsible agriculture.